কবর যিয়ারত

সুনানে ইবনে মা’জাতে ইবনে মাসউদের ভাষায়:-

اِنَّ رَسُولَ الله (ص) قال : کُنتُ نَهَيتُکُم عَن زيارة القُبورَ فَزُوُروها فَا نَّها تُزَهِّدُ في الدّتيا و تُذَ کِّرُ فِي الآخِرَة

নিশ্চয়ই রাসূনুল্লাহ (সাঃ) বলেন :- আমি (ইতিপূর্বে ) তোমাদেরকে কবর যিয়ারতে নিষেধ করেছিলাম, এখন এগুলোর যিয়ারতে যাও। কারণ কবর যিয়ারত, পৃথিবীতে সংয়ম ও আখারাতের স্মরণ আনয়ন করে।

Reference :
♦সহী মুসলিম, হাদীস ৯৭৭,
♦সুনানে নাসাঈ, খঃ৪ পৃঃ৮৯,
♦সূনানে ইবনে মা’জা খঃ১ পৃঃ৫০০-৫০১,
♦সুনানে তিরমিযি খঃ৪ পৃঃ২৭৪,
♦সুনানে আবি দাউদ, হাদীস ৩২৩৫,
♦মোয়াত্তা মালিক খঃ২ পৃঃ৪৮৫]

Why did Nathuram Godse kill Mahatma Gandhi?

To fathom Nathuram Godse’s patriotism and love for India, we must delve into aspects of his personal history. It is important to comprehend the psychology of a boy who was named Ramachandra Godse but who came to be known as Nathuram. Before he was born, in a small village of the Bombay-Pune belt, his parents had three sons, all of whom died in infancy. To ensure death did not claim Ramachandra as well, they brought him up as a girl, had his nose pierced, and made him wear the nose ring or nath until they had yet another son. It was because of the nose ring he wore that Ramachandra became Nathuram.

Godse may have defied the jinx of death haunting his family, but the role of girl he was made to play must have bred in him immense confusion and complex about his sexuality. In a fascinating psychoanalysis of Godse, political psychologist Ashis Nandy in his book, At The Edge of Psychology, wrote, “Perhaps it was given in the situation that Nathuram would try to regain the lost clarity of his sexual role by becoming a model of masculinity.”

This was, as Nandy showed in his book, most likely the source from which sprang his opposition to the Gandhian ideas of pacifism and nonviolence. Unable to vanquish the ideas which Godse thought was emasculating the Hindus and turning them effeminate, he killed the man who propagated them.

Decline in social mobility

In a way, Godse’s confusion about his sexuality was mingled with his extreme religiosity as well as anxiety about his own social status. It is possible his parents inculcated in him the feeling of being the chosen one – after all, he, unlike their other three sons, had defied death. Godse became a devotee of the family gods, would go into trance, and play the role of an oracle, or became the medium through which the gods spoke to the family. It must have reinforced his sense of being special to gods.

Nathuram Godse.

Yet this uniqueness his life did not seem affirm. The Godses were Chitpavan Brahmins, a social group that had once enjoyed social prestige and ascendancy, but had become anxious about its status because of the gradual transformation of the country’s socio-economic milieu. This was both because of the modernising influence of the British rule and the Congress’s attempts to give a mass base to the anti-colonial struggle, thus making it imperative for its leaders to rope in social groups on the margin. The rigid social hierarchy, and privileges flowing from it, stood undermined, generating anxieties among the traditional elite.

This anxiety Godse personally experienced in his early life. At the age of 16, he opened a cloth shop – for a Brahmin to enter business was a marker of downward social mobility. Worse, his cloth shop failed and he took to tailoring, deemed to be a lower caste profession. There was thus an enormous gap between Godse belonging to the traditional elite group of India and his actual socio-economic status. “It is from this kind of background that the cadres of violent, extremist and revivalist political groups often come,” wrote Nandy.

Using power to instill fear

Godse joined the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, left it because he did not find it militant enough and entered the Hindu Mahasabha. He started a newspaper, Hindu Rashtra, which argued against and opposed Gandhi because he was perceived to be emasculating Hindus, turning them effeminate. By contrast, the militant traditions of urban middle-class Bengal, Punjab and Maharashtra impressed him immensely.

Gandhi and Godse represented two contrasting ideas of politics and religion. For Godse, politics was about harnessing power to drive fear into opponents, to inflict manifold losses on them through means legitimate or illegitimate. He neither interrogated nor redefined the extant notions of power and their functions. Instead, his idea of power mimicked that of the British, employing force to defeat the rulers, to give them a taste of their own medicine, so to speak.

For Gandhi, though, politics was not so much about defeating the British as it was about transforming the rulers, about making the colonial ruler realise the sheer immorality of the power they exercised. It was not about the end justifying the means. Then again, Gandhi did not perceive Hindus as a religious group, in the way followers of Semitic religions are, but a people spread over a land who believed in an open-ended system that forever incorporated new elements or reinterpreted the existing or old ones. There was no one book, no one way of praying, no one body of rituals.

By contrast, Godse’s idea of religion resembled that of Semitic faiths. Erroneously believing that the unity, organising capacity and missionary zeal of Muslims and Christians had enabled them to conquer India, he wanted Hindus to become a rigidly closed religious group as the followers of those religions were. However, the problem of caste had to be overcome to achieve this unity. Godse sought this by participating in programmes such as inter-dining. His second method of uniting Hindus was to identify and define the other, the Christians and Muslims, by subjugating them for the pain and torment their ancestors were supposed to have inflicted on them. In other words, Godse’s anxieties were to be expressed and overcome in the political-religious realm. 

Sacrifice for militant Hinduism

In assassinating Gandhi, Nathuram gave his otherwise ordinary life a new meaning. This was perhaps the reason why he pleaded with the government not to show him mercy and send him to the gallows. His masculinity had been asserted. He had sacrificed himself for promoting the idea of militant Hinduism. He had killed the man who was sacrilegiously turning Hindus effeminate.

Godse acquired esteem through the assassination of Gandhi. His new-age followers can find their esteem by turning militant, by vanquishing Muslims and Christians in the 21st century, or by converting them and bringing them back into the Hindu fold, in the hope of effacing these religions from the country. It will then turn India akin to a modern European nation-state – one country, one religion – which is the model a large segment of the Hindu Right favours. Godse’s brand of assertive, militant Hinduism finds an echo in such slogans as “Garv se kaho hum Hindu hain” ‒ say with pride that we are Hindu.

Undoubtedly, Godse was a misguided patriot, fired by a warped love for the “motherland”. This is as true of his new-age followers. His love, as also that of his followers, is destructively obsessive. They can neither accept competing ideas in the religious realm nor the free choice of the other. It was this illegitimate passion of Godse which inspired him to kill Gandhi. It is this which usually inspires myriad outfits worldwide to hitch religion to the creed of violence.

NELSON MANDELA

Early Life.   

    

 ROLIHLAHLA "NELSON" MANDELA WAS BORN ON THE 18TH JULY 1918 IN QUNU, SOUTH AFRICA. AS THE YOUNGEST SON OF A RESPECTED AFRICAN CHIEF, ROLIHLAHLA WAS OFFERED THE OPPORTUNITY TO GO TO SCHOOL. HERE HE WAS NAMED "NELSON" BY ONE OF HIS TEACHERS. MANDELA EVENTUALLY STUDIED AT BOTH THE UNIVERSITY OF FORT HARE AND THE UNIVERSITY OF WITWATERSRAND AND QUALIFIED IN LAW, SETTING UP A LAW PRACTICE IN JOHANNESBURG WITH HIS FRIEND WALTER SISULU. IT WAS THE INJUSTICES HE DEALT WITH ON A DAILY BASIS THAT BEGAN TO INFLUENCE HIM.

Political Development - 

Role in the ANCIn 1943 Mandela joined the African National Congress (ANC) which appealed to the South African government for African rights and political changes. Mandela was part of a young group which brought a new sense of youthful optimism and pro-activism to the ANC.

In 1948 the government implemented apartheid. This was a legal system causing separation of people based on their racial classification, with subsequent oppression for non-whites. The government used police and armed forces to enforce apartheid and implemented increasingly stringent laws to outlaw any opposition. In response to this the ANC began a policy of passive resistance; encouraging boycotts, "stay at home" strikes, non violent civil disobedience and non co-operation with the everyday apartheid rules and regulations.

Activism, Arrest and Imprisonment

As a highly educated lawyer with natural leadership abilities, Mandela was an influential figure within the ANC. During these years, Mandela was banned, arrested and detained numerous times and was tried for Treason in 1956 but later acquitted. As the government increasingly sought to suppress all anti apartheid movements the ANC was declared an illegal organisation in 1960. As a last resort, after the failure of peaceful resistance to challenge governnment oppression, Mandela founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), Spear of the Nation. this was a new underground section of the ANC, which was preparing an armed struggle to use limited sabotage against the government with the aim of achieving policy change. After being arrested, using Mandela's vast legal knowledge, throughout the trial the accused stated their position as oppressed political activists, who were willing to use any means to help achieve an egalitarian South Africa. Mandela's final speech to the court stated

Binary Number System

The binary number system, also called the base-2 number system, is a method of representing numbers that counts by using combinations of only two numerals: zero (0) and one (1). Computers use the binary number system to manipulate and store all of their data including numbers, words, videos, graphics, and music.

The term bit, the smallest unit of digital technology, stands for "BInary digiT." A byte is a group of eight bits. A kilobyte is 1,024 bytes or 8,192 bits.

Using binary numbers, 1 + 1 = 10 because "2" does not exist in this system. A different number system, the commonly used decimal or base-10 number system, counts by using 10 digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) so 1 + 1 = 2 and 7 + 7 = 14. Another number system used by computer programmers is the hexadecimal system, base-16 , which uses 16 symbols (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F), so 1 + 1 = 2 and 7 + 7 = E. Base-10 and base-16 number systems are more compact than the binary system. Programmers use the hexadecimal number system as a convenient, more compact way to represent binary numbers because it is very easy to convert from binary to hexadecimal and vice versa. It is more difficult to convert from binary to decimal and from decimal to binary.

The advantage of the binary system is its simplicity. A computing device can be created out of anything that has a series of switches, each of which can alternate between an "on" position and an "off" position. These switches can be electronic, biological, or mechanical, as long as they can be moved on command from one position to the other. Most computers have electronic switches.

When a switch is "on" it represents the value of one, and when the switch is "off" it represents the value of zero. Digital devices perform mathematical operations by turning binary switches on and off. The faster the computer can turn the switches on and off, the faster it can perform its calculations

Binary	Decimal	Hexadecimal
Number	Number	Number
System	System	System
0	0	0
1	1	1
10	2	2
11	3	3
100	4	4
101	5	5
110	6	6
111	7	7
1000	8	8
1001	9	9
1010	10	A
1011	11	B
1100	12	C
1101	13	D
1110	14	E
1111	15	F
10000	16	10

Positional Notation

Each numeral in a binary number takes a value that depends on its position in the number. This is called positional notation. It is a concept that also applies to decimal numbers.

For example, the decimal number 123 represents the decimal value 100 + 20 + 3. The number one represents hundreds, the number two represents tens, and the number three represents units. A mathematical formula for generating the number 123 can be created by multiplying the number in the hundreds column (1) by 100, or 102; multiplying the number in the tens column (2) by 10, or 101; multiplying the number in the units column (3) by 1, or 100; and then adding the products together. The formula is: 1 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 3 × 100 = 123.

This shows that each value is multiplied by the base (10) raised to increasing powers. The value of the power starts at zero and is incremented by one at each new position in the formula.

This concept of positional notation also applies to binary numbers with the difference being that the base is 2. For example, to find the decimal value of the binary number 1101, the formula is 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 13.

Binary Operations

Binary numbers can be manipulated with the same familiar operations used to calculate decimal numbers, but using only zeros and ones. To add two numbers, there are only four rules to remember:

Therefore, to solve the following addition problem, start in the rightmost column and add 1 + 1 = 10; write down the 0 and carry the 1. Working with each column to the left, continue adding until the problem is solved.

To convert a binary number to a decimal number, each digit is multiplied by a power of two. The products are then added together. For example, to translate the binary number 11010 to decimal, the formula would be as follows:

To convert a binary number to a hexadecimal number, separate the binary number into groups of four starting from the right and then translate each group into its hexadecimal equivalent. Zeros may be added to the left of the binary number to complete a group of four. For example, to translate the number 11010 to hexadecimal, the formula would be as follows:

Digital Data

Bits are a fundamental element of digital computing. The term "digitize" means to turn an analog signal—a range of voltages—into a digital signal, or a series of numbers representing voltages. A piece of music can be digitized by taking very frequent samples of it, called sampling, and translating it into discrete numbers, which are then translated into zeros and ones. If the samples are taken very frequently, the music sounds like a continuous tone when it is played back.

A black and white photograph can be digitized by laying a fine grid over the image and calculating the amount of gray at each intersection of the grid, called a pixel . For example, using an 8-bit code, the part of the image that is purely white can be digitized as 11111111. Likewise, the part that is purely black can be digitized as 00000000. Each of the 254 numbers that fall between those two extremes (numbers from 00000001 to 11111110) represents a shade of gray. When it is time to reconstruct the photograph using its collection of binary digits, the computer decodes the image, assigns the correct shade of gray to each pixel, and the picture appears. To improve resolution, a finer grid can be used so the image can be expanded to larger sizes without losing detail.

A color photograph is digitized in a similar fashion but requires many more bits to store the color of the pixel. For example, an 8-bit system uses eight bits to define which of 256 colors is represented by each pixel (28 equals 256). Likewise, a 16-bit system uses sixteen bits to define each of 65,536 colors (216 equals 65,536). Therefore, color images require much more storage space than those in black and white.

see also Early Computers; Memory.